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This paper was originally presented at the 10th Interservice/Industry Training Systems Conference in 1986. It was published in the Proceedings of the 10th Interservice/Industry Training Systems Conference (1988), pp. 115-120. National Security Industrial Association, Washington, D.C.
Dealing with human performance topics such as judgement, decision making, interpersonal communications, and stress management in a multi-crewmember, ACT provides formal training and evaluation in human performance skill areas not traditionally included in aircrew training programs.
ACT provides the platform to build comprehensive mission training programs which address team performance and the development of warfighting skills for almost any combat team environment. Emerging technologies which allow simulation networking will provide additional applications for team oriented training which supports successful mission rehearsal and combat training.
Modern combat, with the advent of sophisticated communications, intelligence, and weapon systems, has become ever more team related activity. The ability to effectively wage war against an enemy requires that we be able to train our commanders and forces in the human performance factors which enable us to be effective in this modern battle environment. Ironically, the increasing sophistication of our technology makes the requirement for training in these "soft" skills all the more critical. Link Training Services Corporation, along with various military aviation communities, has been addressing these areas for several years using techniques collectively identified as Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT). These ACT training techniques can provide the basis for human performance improvements which enhance our warfighting capabilities through improved judgment, decision making, communications, and stress management under combat conditions.
Since the early days of aviation, there has been a general recognition of the importance of aircrew training to ensure safe and successful mission accomplishment. Typically, this training has emphasized several skill and performance areas in an attempt to reduce accident rates. These areas of interest include "sick and rudder" skills; knowledge of equipment, systems, and procedures; mission planning; navigation; weather analysis; and observation skills.
Recently, through details analysis of aircrew performance and safety statistics, military and commercial aviation researchers have recognized that a significant percentage of aircraft accidents and mishaps are the result of various factors related to crew performance. These aircrew performance factors include improper management of mission resources and interpersonal communications; ineffective decision making, judgment, and risk management skills; a lack of ability to handle critical situations and/or distractions; ineffective use of checklists and procedures; inefficient workload assessment and time management; and lack of crew input for mission planning. Identification and isolation of these factors has resulted in the design and development of aircrew training techniques which enhance flight crew coordination and communication skills. The crew coordination training programs have been designed to supplement and enhance existing aircrew training programs which normally address only the traditional job performance knowledge and skill areas.
Crew coordination training is referred to by various names within different segments of the military and commercial aviation. Most commonly, this type of training is referred to as Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT). Other terminology for ACT includes FliteDeck Management, Cockpit Resource Management (CRM), Cockpit Management Resources (CMR), and Situational Awareness training.
The evolution of Aircrew Coordination Training has taken place over the last decade. With the advent of new technologies (turbine powerplants, advanced manufacturing techniques, improved maintenance, and high technology electronic systems) the capability and reliability of aviation hardware and software improved dramatically. During the mid- to late 1970s, however, a series of tragic aircraft accidents occurred, including the following:
Subsequent investigation of the causes of these accidents directed the attention of the aviation safety community away from aircraft hardware malfunctions, focusing instead on the human element and the role it plays in aviation safety.
In response to the identified causes of these accidents, radical changes in aircrew training methodologies were suggested. Several commercial airlines began developing aircrew training programs which incorporated aircrew coordination objectives. One such pioneer program was designed and implemented by United Airlines, whose Command/Leadership/Resource Management course covers a subset of the current list of ACT objectives. Another is Northwest Orient, whose work led to the development of Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) as a simulator technique for practicing and assessing ACT skills.
Simultaneously, the aviation research community was active in exploring human performance issues. A landmark study was conducted in 1979 by H. P. Ruffell Smith at NASA's Ames Research Center. His research, titled "A Simulator Study of the Interaction of Pilot Workload with Errors, Vigilance, and Decisions," not only provided valuable data on crew behavior and preference, but also led to breakthroughs in the use of simulators for the training of aircrew coordination skills.
In June 1979, NASA sponsored a workshopÑ"Resource Management on the Flight Deck"Ñ which brought together representatives of aviation research, training, and operational communities to share information on aircrew coordination training. Following this workshop, aircrew coordination training design and development activities expanded rapidly throughout the military and civil aviation communities. In May 1986, ongoing research and development of aircrew coordination training was again reviewed under the sponsorship of NASA and USAF's Military airlift Command (MAC). As part of this workshop, industry progress since 1979 was reviewed, new training techniques were presented, and areas for further research and development were explored.
Parallel to the aircrew coordination training developments described above, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Transport Canada, General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and the aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) have sponsored a series of research and training development programs in the area of Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM). Aeronautical Decision Making addresses pilot judgment and decision making processes, presenting models for decision making, risk analysis, and hazardous attitudes which may interfere with effective decision making. The research and subsequent training programs developed as a result of ADM have demonstrated significant improvements in the decision making behavior of pilots of single crew aircraft. Development of ADM applications for crew operated aircraft are currently in progress.
All branches of the U.S. Military have taken steps to incorporate Aircrew Coordination concepts into their training. Military applications of Aircrew Coordination Training concepts have been made by the USAF (MAC) through its Aircrew Training systems and unit level ACT requirements initiated by MAC Headquarters. The Air Force initiated standardized ACT in the fall of 1986 with the organization of an ACT working group. Subsequently, an ACT conference was held at Norton AFB in January 1987, which resulted in the development of a standardized set of ACT training objectives and terminology for use in all MAC ACT programs.
In November 1987, the U.S. Army conducted a workshop to explore ACT application to Army rotorcraft and fixed wing operations. Currently, there are several unit level ACT development initiatives in the Army aviation community.
Beginning earlier this year, U.S. Navy and Marine Corps rotorcraft Fleet Replacement Squadrons provide ACT as part of their flight crew training activities.
A full program of Aircrew Coordination Training includes a variety of interrelated elements. Each of these elements represents a skill or knowledge area relating to human performance. The Link Training Services Corporation Aircrew Coordination Training program includes the following elements:
Effective ACT courses integrate these elements into their course objectives and further relate them to the overall training syllabus. The result of this total integration methodology is a mission crew whose members possess both individual skills and knowledge and the team skills and knowledge required to function as an integral part of the mission crew. The ACT elements introduced above are addressed in detail in the following paragraphs.
All multi-crew weapons have many resources available during the conduct of a given mission. The ability to effectively access and utilize each resource as required is vital if the crew is to successfully complete its mission, whether in peacetime or combat operations. This segment of Aircrew Coordination Training is designed to ensure that the crew is fully aware of the variety of resources available by utilizing other mission team members, both within their command and external to it.
Each member of the mission crew must be highly proficient in interpersonal communications skills. Successful completion of each mission relies heavily upon effective transfer of information and ideas among crewmembers, and between the mission crew and external agencies. Crewmembers must have a working knowledge of the communication process, barriers to communication, and individual communicating styles. Aircrew Coordination Training provides this knowledge and allows for structured practice of communications skills. This results in improvement in overall crew coordination skills, which is reflected in more efficient use and integration of cockpit resources.
The ability to make sound decisions based upon good judgment is vital for both the commander, as he directs the overall mission execution, and individual mission team members, as they perform their assigned duties. Effective ACT includes exercises to improve decision making and the application of proper judgment.
Closely related to the decision making process is the ability to successfully manage risk. Implicit in the process of making decisions is the realization that there are usually several options to choose from. Risk management addresses the ability to assess the risk of a given available option. Proper risk assessment leads to minimizing the risk to the crew and to mission completion while maximizing safety and survivability.
Mission teams must effectively manage the stress which they experience during various mission phases. The ability to cope with stress has a significant impact on the level of crew performance during normal operations, emergencies, and in combat. Research reveals that stress must be managed to appropriate levels; abnormally low levels of stress may have negative effects on alertness and monitoring activity, while high stress situations may tend to cause crewmembers to fixate on a single element of the mission and exclude others.
Missions occur in a constantly changing environment. The crew's ability to recognize and respond to changes that take place around them plays a vital role in their ability to successfully complete their mission. Situational awareness training provides the crew with the tools they need to recognize and respond to situational changes which could affect the mission. Important elements of this training include methods for understanding how other elements of ACT relate to situational awareness, presentation of a model which assists the crew in maintaining situational awareness, and methods for recognizing a loss of situational awareness.
Closely related to situational awareness is the effective handling of unanticipated distractions which, if not managed properly, have the potential of distracting the crew from their assigned mission duties. Effective ACT incorporates focusing techniques, which train each crewmember to maintain job discipline, in order to effectively and continually perform tasks during unanticipated interruptions.
All human performance elements incorporated into ACT are dependent upon the crew's effective use of established procedures, Standard Operating Procedures, checklists, and regulations. These documents represent the combined results of many years of mission experience, and provide the basis for decision making and procedural tasking. Each crewmember must have a thorough understanding of, and proficiency in, the use of each of these vital resources.
Effective mission planning provides a vital basis for the team to successfully complete a given mission. Beginning with the mission briefing, each member of the crew must share a clear and common understanding of the planned mission and hot it is to be executed. Throughout the mission, each crewmember must understand the mission contingencies, the options available to meet them, and their associated risks. Subsequent to the completion of a given mission, the aircrew must debrief as a team. Planning activities provide an effective ground work for the higher level teamwork that is necessary during high stress situations.
The task loading of each crewmember has a significant effect upon individual and crew performance. The ability of the mission commander to manage his workload and that of each team member has tremendous impact upon the crew's ability to perform effectively and maintain a high level of situational awareness. Closely related is the management ability to effectively deal with situations which present time constraints to the crew.
Military officers and NCOs receive excellent training in leadership and followership skills. An effective ACT program extends this training to cover situations which are unique to the mission environment.
Mission teams which contain a mixture of officer and enlisted personnel, or have rank inversions (i.e., the aircraft commander is junior to another officer within the crew), present unique crew coordination problems, particularly in the area of crew communications and decision making. ACT provides the mission crew with the tools to effectively address these issues while maintaining the integrity of the military rank system.
Current research in this area has identified new techniques for the effective training of small teams, such as combat crews. These include techniques to teach the skills required for the formation and unification of the team, performance of job functions as a team, and positive termination of the team relationship.
The various military and commercial organizations which have developed Aircrew Coordination Training programs have pioneered a number of training techniques which have e proven to be effective for the training of ACT knowledge and skill objectives. These include pre-training activities, seminar formats, and mission-oriented simulation training. Each concept is further described in the following paragraphs.
Many aspects of ACT are not included in traditional crew mission training programs. In order to give the student an appreciation of the importance of the ACT program and provide a consistent entry-level knowledge and vocabulary, a pre-work package is frequently provided prior to each crewmember's arrival for training. This pre-training activity provides descriptions of basic concepts, examples of their application, and case studies which demonstrate desirable and undesirable crew behavior. The package may also include exercises to be completed by the student prior to formal training.
Academic training in ACT is most effective when conducted in a seminar format. Due to the nature of ACT, peer feedback is often more effective than comments provided by an instructor. The communication flow established using a seminar format offers optimum opportunity for mutidirectional communications. ACT seminars typically include the following activities:
One of the most effective techniques for training in ACT concepts and skills involves the use of simulation, supported by a video camera and recorder. This training technique has been used successfully for both military and commercial training. Originally called Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) by commercial airlines, it is referred to as Mission Oriented Simulator Training (MOST) or Mission Oriented Flight Training (MOFT) in the military.
MOST involves a simulator training event which is dedicated to practicing ACT objectives. The event is structured as a complete mission and follows a carefully scripted, realistic scenario that enables the crew to operate the way they normally perform during the mission, so their actual behavior may be observed. The instructor introduces events into the mission as specified by a scenario designed to exercise the crew's situational awareness, resource management, decision making, communications, and other skills. Key portions of the crew's activities are videotaped for review by the crew and instructor during the post-mission debrief. Crews are encouraged to self-debrief on aircrew coordination topics in order to take advantage of self-analysis and peer level comments to the maximum extent possible. The instructor uses probing-type questions and selected portions of the video tape to foster this process.
To be effective, instructors who conduct Aircrew Coordination Training must receive training in the effective use of the special instructional techniques used in the ACT program. Link Training Services Corporation has developed an instructor training program which includes training in seminar facilitation, MOST conduct, and self-debriefing techniques.
As described above, most knowledge and skill areas addressed by Aircrew Coordination Training are applicable to any highly dynamic environment which requires efficient performance by a skilled team to ensure successful mission accomplishment. While generic ACT training is of value at a general level, tailoring is required to match the training to the mission, weapon system, and crew position for optimum training effectiveness.
The various instructional techniques used in ACT lend themselves very well to tailoring. Case studies, classroom exercises, and simulator missions which use examples relevant to the crew's actual mission, weapon system, and crew position are not only more interesting, they provide valuable practice in applying ACT skills within the mission environment.
Achieving this level of training effectiveness requires that ACT objectives be integrated into the overall stream of training experiences which the combat crew is required to participate in. This integration, in turn, must be anticipated by our training designers as they prepare to implement the next generation of team training techniques.
Aircrew Coordination Training knowledge and skill objectives are not unique to aviation. They apply in any situation where coordinated performance by skilled teams is required to ensure successful mission completion.
Just as the aviation communities have formalized human performance training under the banner of Aircrew Coordination Training as a peacetime accident prevention tool, combat mission oriented segments of the military will benefit from tailored courses in these areas. New technological developments in simulation and the continuing improvements in field exercise fidelity provide fertile ground for the implementation of ACT-like objectives.
The use of Aircrew Coordination Training techniques as a part of preparing for operations in the combat environment allows the combat crew to improve their warfighting capabilities. These techniques can be adapted to cover a wide spectrum of war such as contingencies, low intensity conflict, and all out nuclear war.
The combat team's ability to coordinate its information, resources, and actions becomes paramount in order for the mission commander to be apprised of the situation, while maintaining an appropriate filter from the crew so the decision making process remains manageable.
Combat, even more than peacetime emergencies, is rich in uncertainty, change, and error. These are the key elements which human performance training addresses, thus enabling combat teams to effectively fight a war.
The emerging ability to network many simulators together allows vastly improved opportunities to learn and practice warfighting skills in a cost effective manner. As these opportunities to practice weapons employment and tactics become available, ACT techniques can provide the basis to take advantage of this technology in an instructionally sound manner, providing added training value to all participants in the SIMNET exercise.
The mission rehearsal environment also provides a significant opportunity for the application of ACT techniques. Preparation for a mission is an ideal time for the identification and correction of potential human performance deficiencies which could impact successful mission accomplishment. It also helps the mission team recognize those aspects of the mission which will be critical from the perspective of the various elements of ACT.
Although various military and civilian organizations have taken significant strides in implementing Aircrew Coordination Training for their crews, we have really just scratched the surface of the positive impact this type of training can have on mission effectiveness in a wide range of applications, both within the aviation community and in other organizations where team effectiveness is paramount for successful mission accomplishment.